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上述教会人士对名利、文学和德行与基督宗教研究的观点在当时的社会并不是可以轻易地被付诸实践的。在一定程度上,他们的理想之成为现实,是通过活跃在大学神学研究和教学中的多米尼克和方济各修会托钵僧。12和13世纪是西欧经济繁荣和文化昌盛的时代,当时的大学成为教育和研究中心,吸引了各地出众的知识精英。这一时代同时又是学术受到市场经济和媚俗流弊挑战、特别是神学(基督宗教研究)面临深重危机的时代:神学领域的大学生和大学教授在物质的贫困中挣扎,为求得精神和灵修的自由而苦苦奋斗;大批有才华的学生和教师转向有利可图的法学和医学;各地主教也顺应风气的转换而松懈了对神学教育的支持和鼓励。教皇针对如此情势要求各地教会给予神学教育经济援助,在一定范围内限制罗马法等世俗学科在大学的发展,但是成效并不显著。方济各会和多米尼克会之进入大学,特别是他们在神学领域占据的重要地位,帮助解决了当时教会在宗教研究和教学上面临的危机[62]。可见,大学宗教研究在中世纪西欧突出市场经济重围的途径不是学生和教授在物质生活上得到改善,而是他们在困境中选择彻底的贫困—加入多米尼克会和方济各会;杰出的教会知识分子不是一头坠入尘世,以自己的才华和知识去分得商海的一杯羹,而是在自愿的贫困中获得精神解放和服务他人的自由。在现代学者的笔下,这似乎是经济压力之下具有戏剧性的发展[63]。但是我们的感觉会不一样,如果我们咀嚼一下伯纳德谈论学识的布道辞里的一段话,对之,多米尼克、方济各以及他们在大学的兄弟都会由衷地在心内共鸣:
转向泪,转向悲哭,转向哀鸣,转向主,在谦卑中呼唤主:医治我,因为我得罪了你。再转向主求得宽慰,因为圣父就是仁慈,就是给人完全宽慰的上帝[64]。
“丝毫没有恐惧并且拥有满天晴朗无云的自信”。这是纽曼对拥抱理性、科学和哲学的一些现代大学学人的刻画。也许,不妨回忆一下中世纪学人的心态,不妨回忆一下那时在基督宗教厚重氛围中滋长起来的与功利主义格格不入的人文主义精神。
[1] J. H. Newman, The Idea of a University Defined and Illustrated, reprint edn. (London: Routledge/Thoemmes Press, 1994), pp. 12-13.
[2] The Idea of a University, Discourse III-IX, 尤其是pp. 70, 97-98, 181, 196, 202-204, 226-227.
[3]关于这一概念以及相关的内容,见R. L. Benson and G. Constable (ed.), Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982).
[4] H. Denifle, Die Entstehung der Universit?ten des Mittelalters bis 1400 (Berlin: Weidmann, 1885); H. Rashdall, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, 3 vols., ed. F. M. Powicke and A. B. Emden (Oxford: The University Press, 1936).
[5] G. Compayré, Abelard and the Origin and Early History of Universities (New York: Charles Scribners Son, 1893; reprint edn., Greenwood Press, 1969). P. Mandonnet, St. Dominic and His Work (St. Louis: B. Herder Books, 1948).
[6] Abelard and the Origin and Early History of Universities, pp. 266-267. 晚近的中世纪大学研究肯定这一看法,不过更加细致入微了,指出赤贫的学生在比例上毕竟是少数,在意大利以北在15%到20%左右。见J. Verger, “Teachers,” in W. Rüegg, ed., A History of the Universities in Europe, vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages, ed. H. de Ridder-Symoens (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 166-167, 204-211.
[7] Abelard and the Origin and Early History of Universities, pp. 285-286. Universities in the Middle Ages, pp. 225, 369.
[8] The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. 3, pp.393-396. 教皇教令的规定是,结婚的教士不再享有教士特权,不必穿戴教士服装和行剪发礼。X, III, 3,
[9] E. Gilson, Heloise and Abelard (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1960), pp. 9-19.
[10] Abelard, Historia calamitatum, ed. J. Monfrin (Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1967), pp. 76-77.
[11]St. Dominic and His Work, chapter 19.
见.
[12] R. W. Hunt, ed., “The Preface to the ‘Speculum Ecclesiae’ of Giraldus Cambrensis,” Viator 8 (1977), p. 206. 转引自s. C. Ferruolo, The Origin of the University: The Schools of Paris and Their Critics, 1100-1215 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985), p. 181.
[13] X, V, 5, c. 5.
[14] X, V, 5, cc. 1 et 4.
[15] D. 37, c. 12.
[16] Die Summa Decretorum des Magister Rufinus, ed. H. Singer (Paderborn: Sch?ningh, 1902) ad D. 37, c. 12. Die Summa des Stephanus Tornacensis über das Decretum Gratiani, ed. J. F. Schulte (Giessen: Verlag von Emil Roth, 1891) ad D. 37, c. 12.
[17] J. Verger, “Teachers,” Universities in the Middle Ages, pp. 152-153.
[18] D. E. R. Watt, “University Clerks and Rolls of Petitions for Benefices,” Speculum 34 (1959), 213-229.
[19] X, III, 4, c. 12.
[20] Extrav. Jo., 3, c. 1. 教皇约翰二十二世(1316-1334年在位)的这篇教令(Execrabilis)揭露和批评了这种令人遗憾的状况。
[21] R. C. Schwinges, “Student Education, Student Life,” Universities in the Middle Ages, pp. 209-210. 且不要说穷人在中世纪大学的窘迫境况。哈代笔下的裘德是英国维多利亚时期的一位石匠,他有才华,渴望做一名牧师,但是因为贫困而被排斥在他所向往的牛津大学门外。《无名的裘德》(Jude the Obscure)提高了英国公众对劳工阶层接受大学教育问题的关注,牛津不久以后就专为贫困家庭子弟设立了拉斯金学院。不过拉什德尔指出,虽然有些极其贫穷的学生必须靠乞讨为生,大学甚至发给他们合法乞讨的许可证,而有限的可以接济穷学生的奖学金,由于恶劣的利用裙带关系的风气,往往被有钱有势的学生拿走,中世纪大学生的贫困一面是不可与社会底层的民众生活相比拟的。The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. 3, pp. 404-414.
[22] P. Moraw, “Careers of Graduates,” Universities in the Middle Ages, pp. 258.
[23] N. Siraisi, “The Faculty of Medicine,” Universities in the Middle Ages, p. 361.
[24] The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. 2, pp. 126-127.
[25] X, III, 1, c. 10.
[26] X, V, 33, c. 28.
[27] A. G. Garcia, “The Faculties of Law,” Universities in the Middle Ages, p. 388.
[28] X, V, 33, c. 28.
[29] Canonista sine legibus nihil. 参见A.-M. Gauthier, “On the Use of Roman Law in Canon Law,” Unico Ecclesiae servitio, ed. M. Thériault and Jean Thorn (Pttawa: Saint Paul University, 1991), pp. 53-67. The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. 1, pp. 322-323.
[30] Universities in the Middle Ages, pp. 259.
[31] Contra impugnantes Dei cultum, XXIX, 29.
[32] J. Delumeau, Catholicism between Luther and Voltaire (London: Search Press, 1977), pp. 154-156.
[33] H. Denifle et al., Cartularium Universitatis Parisiensis, 4 vols. (Paris: Ex Typis Fratrum Delalain, 1889-1897; reprint edn., Bruxelles: Cuture et Civilisation, 1964). 遗憾的是,我未能在北京找到该文献。
[34]比如格里高利九世如是说 (X, V, 7, c. 14 Sicut in uno corpore): “Quum igitur nonnulli laici praedicare praesumant, et verendum nimis exsistat, ne vitia sub specie virtutum occulte subintrent, nos, attendentes, quod doctorum ordo est in ecclesia Dei quasi praecipuus, mandamus, quatenus, quum alios Dominus apostolos dederit, alios prophetas, alos vero doctores, interdicas laicis universis, cuiuscunque ordinis censantur, usurpare offitium praedicandi. 另见X, V, 7, c. 12.
[35] X. V, 5, cc. 1-4.
[36] X, III, 18, c. 1.
[37] Quasi lignum vitae. 见Cartularium Universitatis Parisiensis, vol. 1, pp. 279-285.转引自O. Pedersen, The First Universities: Studium General and the Origins of University Education in Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 164.
[38] Clem., V, 1, c. 1.
[39] X, III, 50, c. 10; X, V, 5, c. 5; X, V, 33, c. 28.
[40] D. 86, d. a. c. 5.
[41] D. 36, d. p. c. 2.
[42] D. 37, d. p. c. 7.
[43] D. 37, d. a. c. 9.
[44] D. 37, d. a. c. 16 et c. 16; D. 38, d. a. c. 12 et c. 12.
[45] Die Summa Decretorum des Magister Rufinus ad D. 37, cc. 1-2; Die Summa des Stephanus Tornacensis über das Decretum Gratiani ad D. 37, d. a. c. 1.
[46] Die Summa Decretorum des Magister Rufinus ad D. 37, c. 3.
[47] D. 43, d. p. c. 5.
[48] S. Bernardus Abbatis Clarae-Vallensis, Sermones in Cantica. XXXVI, PL 183, cols. 967-971.
[49] Epistola CCLI, PL 211, cols. 516-518.
[50] X, I, 2, c. 11 (Ex literis vestrae); X, I, 38, c. 10 (Accendens ad ap. sed.).
[51] J. W. Baldwin, “Masters at Paris from 1179 to 1215: A Social Perspecttive,” Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century, pp. 138-1172. 关于英诺森的教育背景,见K. Pennington, “The Legal Education of Innocent III,” Bulletin of Medieval Canon Law 4 (1974), pp. 70-77. 派宁顿否认英诺森受过系统的法学训练,认为他的思维范式主要是神学的,而非教会法的。
[52] The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. 1, p. 505. The First Universities, p. 165.
[53] De ontemptu mundi, PL 217, col. 707.
[54] X, V, 7, c. 12.
[55] X, V, 7, c. 12.
[56] Sermones de tempore XII, PL 217, cols. 367-368; Sermones in communi de evangelistis II, PL 217, cols. 604-605. X, V, 7, c. 10.
[57] Sermones de tempore XII, PL 217, col. 367; Sermones de diversis IV, PL 217, col. 666; Sermones de diversis VII, PL 217, 681, 682 et 686.
[58] Sermones in Cantica. XXXVI, PL 183, cols. 968.
[59] Sermones de tempore XXIII, PL 217, cols. 417-418.
[60] Sermones de diversis IV, PL 217, 666-668.
[61] Sermones de diversis VII, PL 217, 681 et 686.
[62]芒多内谈到了多米尼克修会的情况,见St. Dominic and His Work, chapter 19.
[63] R. W. Southern, Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages (New York: Penguin Books, 1970), pp. 277-279, 292-299.
[64] Sermones in Cantica. XXXVI, PL 183, col. 970. |
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